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First Impressions
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1440
Gutenberg returns to MainzJohann Gutenberg returns to Mainz to experiment with his new printing business.
Mainz: Gutenberg returns to cityJohann Gutenberg returns to Mainz, the city of his birth, to experiment with printing.
1450
Fall of ConstantinopleThe Turks capture Constantinople, bringing to an end the Byzantine Empire.
End of the Hundred Years' WarThe defeat of John Talbot at the Battle of Castillon brings the "Hundred Years' War" to a close, leading to more stable conditions in Europe.
Gutenberg prints indulgencesJohann Gutenberg prints several papal indulgences in Mainz, the earliest dated documents printed with metal type.
Gutenberg prints 42-line Bible in MainzJohann Gutenberg's monumental achievement is his complete Bible, printed with 42 lines per page. The Rylands copy is one of approximately 50 to survive.
Gutenberg prints 42-line BibleJohann Gutenberg completes his Bible, the first substantial book printed with movable metal type.
Siege of BelgradeThe Siege of Belgrade temporarily halts the Ottoman Turks' advance into Europe.
Fust and Schoeffer print the Mainz PsalterJohann Fust and Peter Schoeffer print the so-called Mainz Psalter in 1457. It is the first book to be printed in two colours, and it also contains musical notation.
Fust and Schoeffer take over Gutenberg's workshopJohann Gutenberg had taken out loans to finance his printing business from Johann Fust; in 1457 he defaults on the debt and Fust and Peter Schoeffer take over the press.
Jenson learns the art of printing in MainzNicolas Jenson is sent to Mainz by the King of France to learn the art of type founding, punch cutting and printing: perhaps an early case of industrial espionage!
1460
36-line Bible printed in BambergThe 36-line Bible is printed using the same type as Gutenberg's 42-line Bible. There is no date or place-name in the book, but it is thought to have been printed in Bamberg, about 1460.
Bamberg: printing beginsBamberg is the second city to develop printing, after Mainz. Albrecht Pfister sets up a press around 1460.
Pfister's first dated bookAlbrecht Pfister starts printing in Bamberg, on the River Main, around 1460. His first dated book is a collection of fables called Der Edelstein, dated 1461.
First book printed in ItalyThe first book printed in Italy is an edition of Cicero's De oratore, printed at Subiaco in 1465 by Konrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannartz.
Sweynheym and Pannartz introduce printing to ItalyKonrad Sweynheym from Mainz and Arnold Pannartz from Cologne set up a press in the Benedictine monastery at Subiaco, east of Rome.
Cologne: printing beginsUlrich Zel, who had worked with the printers in Mainz, moves to Cologne and sets up the first printing press there in around 1465 or 1466.
Han and Riessinger begin printing in RomeThe German printers Ulrich Han and Sixtus Riessinger set up the first printing press in Rome.
Rome: printing beginsTwo German printers Ulrich Han and Sixtus Riessinger set up first printing press in Rome, soon followed by Sweynheym and Pannartz.
Gutenberg diesJohann Gutenberg dies a poor man in Mainz in February 1468.
Basel: printing beginsPrinting begins in the Swiss city of Basel in 1468 when Berthold Ruppel of Hanau prints a Latin Bible.
Johann de Spira begins printing in VeniceJohann de Spira sets up the first printing press in Venice, and is granted a five-year monopoly. When he dies in 1470, the press is continued by his brother Wendelin.
Venice: printing beginsJohann de Spira sets up the first printing press in Venice, and is granted a five-year monopoly. When he dies in 1470, the press is continued by his brother Wendelin.
Marriage of Isabella I and Ferdinand IIThe marriage of Isabella I of Castille and Ferdinand II of Aragon lays the foundations for the later political unification of Spain.
1470
First vernacular (non-Latin) bookThe first book printed in any language other than Latin is Boccaccio's Decamerone, printed in Naples around 1470 by the so-called Printer of Terentius.
First book printed in ParisThe first Parisian book is an edition of Gasparinus Barzizius's Epistolae, produced by three printers from Basel, Ulrich Gering, Michael Friburger and Martin Cranz.
Jenson begins printing in VeniceAfter working as a punchcutter and type designer for other printers, Nicolas Jenson sets up a press in Venice under his own name.
Caxton commissions his first booksWhile living in exile in Cologne in 1471-2, William Caxton commissions several books from local printers.
Cologne: Caxton commissions booksWhile living in exile in Cologne in 1471-2, William Caxton commissions several books from local printers.
Yorkists defeat LancastriansThe Lancastrian army is defeated by Edward IV at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471; the Lancastrian heir to the throne, Edward, Prince of Wales, is killed.
Lauer invents moving printing carriagePrinter Georg Lauer in Rome invents a moving carriage for the bed of the printing press, allowing full sheets of paper to be printed with two pulls of the press.
Caxton prints his first bookWilliam Caxton prints his first book, the Recuyell of the historyes of Troye, in Bruges or Ghent. It is his own translation of a well-known French romance.
Caxton prints his first bookWilliam Caxton prints his first book, the Recuyell of the historyes of Troye, in Bruges or Ghent. It is his own translation of a well-known French romance.
Flanders: William Caxton prints his first bookWilliam Caxton prints his first book, the Recuyell of the historyes of Troye, in Bruges or Ghent. It is his own translation of a well-known French romance.
Burgundian WarsThe Burgundian Wars break out between the Dukes of Burgundy and Kings of France. Charles the Bold is killed in 1477, ending the Burgundy dynasty.
Caxton prints first edition of Canterbury talesThe first book Caxton prints after his move to Westminster in 1476 is Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury tales, the most popular work of literature in medieval England.
Caxton sets up a press at WestminsterWilliam Caxton moves back to England after many years on the Continent, and sets up a press within the precincts of Westminster Abbey.
Westminster: Caxton sets up his pressWilliam Caxton moves back to England after many years on the Continent, and sets up a press within the precincts of Westminster Abbey.
First book illustrated with copper engravingsNicolaus Laurentii in Florence is the first person to illustrate a book with copper engravings: Antonio da Siena's Monte santo di Dio.
Oxford: printing beginsTwo printing presses are founded in Oxford in 1478 and 1481. They are short-lived enterprises, unable to compete with the flourishing trade in books imported from the Continent.
Beginning of the Spanish InquisitionOn 1 November 1478 Sixtus IV authorizes the Spanish Inquisition established by Isabella I and Ferdinand II.
St Albans: printing beginsAround 1479 a printing press is set up in the gatehouse of St Albans Abbey: the only religious house in pre-Reformation England to run an independent printing press.
1480
London: printing beginsThe first book printed in the City of London is a Latin commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, financed by the draper William Wilcock.
Caxton prints 2nd edition of Canterbury talesWilliam Caxton reprints the Canterbury tales in 1483, with a revised text and featuring a set of lively woodcuts.
Edward IV diesEdward IV dies on 9 April 1483 and is succeeded by his 12-year old son, Edward V. Edward IV nominates his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, as Protector.
Caxton prints Morte d'ArthurWilliam Caxton publishes Sir Thomas Malory's Arthurian romance, Le morte d'Arthur.
WestminsterWilliam Caxton publishes Sir Thomas Malory's Arthurian romance, Le morte d'Arthur.
Battle of Bosworth FieldHenry Tudor defeats the usurper king Richard III at Bosworth and is crowned Henry VII.
Sarum MissalWilliam Caxton arranges for his Sarum Missal (prayer book) to be printed in Paris; it is the first book to carry his printer's device.
Paris: Guillaume MaynyalWilliam Caxton arranges for Guillaume Maynyal to print his Sarum Missal (prayer book) in Paris; it is the first book to carry Caxton's printer's device.
1490
Caxton dies and Wynkyn de Worde takes over pressWilliam Caxton dies in the early months of 1492, having published over 100 works; Wynkyn de Worde takes over the press and reprints some of Caxton's titles.
Columbus 'discovers' the AmericasWhile seeking a route to the East Indies, Christophero Columbo's fleet makes landfall on what is now known as the Bahamas.
Spanish Christians conquer GranadaThe forces of the Christian rulers Isabella I and Ferdinand II defeat the Emirate of Granada, ending almost 800 years of Muslim influence in Spain.
Nuremberg ChronicleHartmann Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle is printed in Nuremberg by Anton Koberger in 1493. It is a world history, illustrated with woodcuts from the studio of Michael Wolgemut.
Italian Wars beginThe Italian Wars are fought intermittently from 1494 to 1559, greatly weakening the Italian city states and strengthening the power of Spain.
Leonardo da Vinci's 'Last Supper'Leonardo da Vinci begins work on the 'Last Supper' fresco in the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan; he completes it in 1498.
Wynkyn de Worde's edition of Morte d'ArthurWynykn de Worde prints the second edition of Sir Thomas Malory's Arthurian romance, Le morte d'Arthur.
Battle of ZonchioThe Ottoman fleet defeats the Venetians at Zonchio (also known as the First Battle of Lepanto), leading to the decline of Venetian power.
1500
Wynykn de Worde moves his press to Fleet StWynykn de Worde moves his press from Westminster to London. He is the first printer to set up a press in Fleet Street, which would be associated with printing for the 500 years.
LondonWynykn de Worde moves his printing press from Westminster to Fleet Street, London.
Aldine edition of Vergil's OperaAldus Manutius issues an edition of Vergil's works in a pocket-book format. It is the first book printed entirely in italics.
1510
Death of Aldus ManutiusAldus Manutius dies on 6 February 1515. The Aldine Press is continued after Aldus's death by his wife and her father, Andrea Torresano, until his son Paolo (1512-1574) takes over. His grandson Aldo then runs the firm until he died in 1597.
Martin Luther's Ninety-Five ThesesMartin Luther nails his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of Wittenberg rectory, heralding the beginning of the Reformation.
1520
Rome is sackedThe sack of Rome by the armies of Emperor Charles V in 1527 ends Rome's position as a leading Renaissance city.
1530
Cambridge: printing at the UniversityCambridge University Press is founded by letters patent of Henry VIII: world's oldest continually operating book publisher.
Death of Wynkyn de WordeWynkyn de Worde dies some time between 5 June 1534, when he signs his will, and 19 January 1535, when it is proved.
Censorship introduced in EnglandHenry VIII decrees that all new books must be approved by the Privy Council.
1640
1650
Manchester: Chetham's LibraryChetham's Library is founded under the will of Humphrey Chetham (1580-1653). It is the oldest public library in the English-speaking world.
1660
Eliot BibleJohn Eliot publishes the first complete Bible in North America, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
London GazetteEngland's oldest newspaper, the London Gazette, is first published. The first twenty-three issues are called the Oxford Gazette, as the Court had relocated to Oxford because of the Plague.
1670
Stereotyping is inventedScottish goldsmith William Ged (d.1749) develops a process of making plaster moulds of pages set in movable-metal type.
1680
Joseph Moxon's Meckanick exercisesJoseph Moxon (1627-1691) publishes his Meckanick exercises... applied to the art of printing, the first printing manual in English.
1790
Aloys Senefelder invents lithographyAloys Senefelder (1771-1834) invents the printing process called lithography, 'stone printing', which involves drawing on a polished stone with a wax crayon or other water-repellent substance.
1800
1810
Roxburghe saleThe sale of the Duke of Roxburghe's library sets a record price of £2,260 for a printed book, the Valdarfer edition of Boccaccio.
PhiladelphiaGeorge E. Clymer develops the Columbian iron printing press in Philadelphia, taking the design across the Atlantic in 1817.
LondonThe Times newspaper installs steam printing presses, increasing output from 300 impressions per hour on a hand-press to 1,100; by 1868 rotary presses achieve 20,000 sheets per hour.
1820
1830
Lord Spencer diesGeorge John, 2nd Earl Spencer, dies on 10 November 1834, leaving a library containing 40,000 volumes, including the Gutenberg Bible and 53 Caxtons, then valued at over £60,000.
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Welcome to First Impressions

First Impressions reveals how printing spread through Europe. We explore the transition from manuscript to print, explaining the technical aspects of Gutenberg's revolution. We also discuss the wider impact that the invention of printing had on society then, and reflect upon what it means for us today. Explore our timeline to find out more about this Information revolution.